Section 2 of 17 - Table of Contents
CHAPTER II
ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Divisions of Grammar--Definitions--Etymology.
In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it is
imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered,
for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how
much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not
know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and
the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like
the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the
import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without
reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and
as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as
those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the
grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while
thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy.
DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR
There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.:
_Orthography_, _Etymology_, _Syntax_, and _Prosody_.
_Orthography_ treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words.
_Etymology_ treats of the various classes of words and the changes they
undergo.
_Syntax_ treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences.
_Prosody_ treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different
kinds of verse.
The three first mentioned concern us most.
LETTERS
A _letter_ is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound.
Letters are divided into _vowels_ and _consonants_. A vowel is a letter
which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded
without the aid of vowels. The vowels are _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and
sometimes _w_ and _y_ when they do not begin a word or syllable.
SYLLABLES AND WORDS
A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of
[Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every
syllable there must be at least one vowel.
A word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables.
Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the
best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs
of speech in properly pronouncing them.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
ARTICLE
An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is
used in a particular or general sense.
There are two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_. _A_ or _an_ is called the
indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or
thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, _a_ man means any
man whatsoever of the species or race.
_The_ is called the definite article because it points out some particular
person or thing; thus, _the_ man means some particular individual.
NOUN
A _noun_ is the name of any person, place or thing as _John_, _London_,
_book_. Nouns are proper and common.
_Proper_ nouns are names applied to _particular_ persons or places.
_Common_ nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species.
Nouns are inflected by _number_, _gender_ and _case_.
_Number_ is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it
represents one or more than one.
_Gender_ is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the
name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has
no distinction of sex.
_Case_ is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the
person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or
question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of
an action or of a relation.
Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the
distinction between _book_ which represents only one object and _leaves_
which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called _Number_;
the distinction of sex between _John_, a male, and _Sarah_, a female, and
_book_ and _leaves_, things which are inanimate and neither male nor
female, is called _Gender_; and the distinction of state between _John_,
the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, _Mary_,
the owner of the book, _leaves_ the objects torn, and _book_ the object
related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called
_Case_.
ADJECTIVE
An _adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, shows or
points out some distinguishing mark or feature of the noun; as, A
_black_ dog.
Adjectives have three forms called degrees of comparison, the _positive_,
the _comparative_ and the _superlative_.
The _positive_ is the simple form of the adjective without expressing
increase or diminution of the original quality: _nice_.
The _comparative_ is that form of the adjective which expresses increase
or diminution of the quality: _nicer_.
The _superlative_ is that form which expresses the greatest increase or
diminution of the quality: _nicest_.
_or_
An adjective is in the positive form when it does not express comparison;
as, "A _rich_ man."
An adjective is in the comparative form when it expresses comparison
between two or between one and a number taken collectively, as, "John is
_richer_ than James"; "he is _richer_ than all the men in Boston."
An adjective is in the superlative form when it expresses a comparison
between one and a number of individuals taken separately; as, "John is
the _richest_ man in Boston."
Adjectives expressive of properties or circumstances which cannot be
increased have only the positive form; as, A _circular_ road; the _chief_
end; an _extreme_ measure.
Adjectives are compared in two ways, either by adding _er_ to the positive
to form the comparative and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative,
or by prefixing _more_ to the positive for the comparative and _most_ to
the positive for the superlative; as, _handsome_, _handsomer_, _handsomest_
or _handsome_, _more handsome_, _most handsome_.
Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing
more and most.
Many adjectives are irregular in comparison; as, Bad, worse, worst; Good,
better, best.
PRONOUN
A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John gave his pen to
James and _he_ lent it to Jane to write _her_ copy with _it_." Without
the pronouns we would have to write this sentence,--"John gave John's pen
to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the
pen."
There are three kinds of pronouns--Personal, Relative and Adjective
Pronouns.
_Personal_ Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the
names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are _I_,
_Thou_, _He_, _She_, and _It_, with their plurals, _We_, _Ye_ or _You_
and _They_.
_I_ is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person
speaking.
_Thou_ is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the
person spoken to.
_He_, _She_, _It_ are the pronouns of the third person because they
represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking.
Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case. The
gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they represent the
person or persons speaking and those who are addressed. The personal
pronouns are thus declined:
First Person.
M. or F.
Sing. Plural.
N. I We
P. Mine Ours
O. Me Us
Second Person.
M. or F.
Sing. Plural.
N. Thou You
P. Thine Yours
O. Thee You
Third Person.
M.
Sing. Plural.
N. He They
P. His Theirs
O. Him Them
Third Person.
F.
Sing. Plural.
N. She They
P. Hers Theirs
O. Her Them
Third Person.
Neuter.
Sing. Plural.
N. It They
P. Its Theirs
O. It Them
N. B.--In colloquial language and ordinary writing Thou, Thine and Thee
are seldom used, except by the Society of Friends. The Plural form You is
used for both the nominative and objective singular in the second person
and Yours is generally used in the possessive in place of Thine.
The _Relative_ Pronouns are so called because they relate to some word or
phrase going before; as, "The boy _who_ told the truth;" "He has done
well, _which_ gives me great pleasure."
Here _who_ and _which_ are not only used in place of other words, but
_who_ refers immediately to boy, and _which_ to the circumstance of his
having done well.
The word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called the
_Antecedent_.
The Relative Pronouns are _who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_.
_Who_ is applied to persons only; as, "The man _who_ was here."
_Which_ is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as, "The
horse _which_ I sold." "The hat _which_ I bought."
_That_ is applied to both persons and things; as, "The friend _that_
helps." "The bird _that_ sings." "The knife _that_ cuts."
_What_ is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the
relative and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "I did what he desired,"
i. e. "I did _that which_ he desired."
Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike.
_Who_ is either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _that_ are masculine,
feminine or neuter; _what_ as a relative pronoun is always neuter.
_That_ and _what_ are not inflected.
_Who_ and _which_ are thus declined:
Sing. and Plural Sing. and Plural
N. Who N. Which
P. Whose P. Whose
O. Whom O. Which
_Who_, _which_ and _what_ when used to ask questions are called
_Interrogative Pronouns_.
_Adjective_ Pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives and pronouns and
are subdivided as follows:
_Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns_ which directly point out the person or
object. They are _this_, _that_ with their plurals _these_, _those_, and
_yon_, _same_ and _selfsame_.
_Distributive Adjective Pronouns_ used distributively. They are _each_,
_every_, _either_, _neither_.
_Indefinite Adjective Pronouns_ used more or less indefinitely. They are
_any_, _all_, _few_, _some_, _several_, _one_, _other_, _another_, _none_.
_Possessive Adjective Pronouns_ denoting possession. They are _my_, _thy_,
_his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, _their_.
N. B.--(The possessive adjective pronouns differ from the possessive case
of the personal pronouns in that the latter can stand _alone_ while the
former _cannot_. "Who owns that book?" "It is _mine_." You cannot say "it
is _my_,"--the word book must be repeated.)
THE VERB
A _verb_ is a word which implies action or the doing of something, or it
may be defined as a word which affirms, commands or asks a question.
Thus, the words _John the table_, contain no assertion, but when the word
_strikes_ is introduced, something is affirmed, hence the word _strikes_
is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group.
The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the _root_ of
the verb; _e. g. love_ is the root of the verb,--"To Love."
Verbs are _regular_ or _irregular_, _transitive_ or _intransitive_.
A verb is said to be _regular_ when it forms the past tense by adding
_ed_ to the present or _d_ if the verb ends in _e_. When its past tense
does not end in _ed_ it is said to be _irregular_.
A _transitive_ verb is one the action of which passes over to or affects
some object; as "I struck the table." Here the action of striking
affected the object table, hence struck is a transitive verb.
An _intransitive_ verb is one in which the action remains with the subject;
as _"I walk,"_ _"I sit,"_ _"I run."_
Many intransitive verbs, however, can be used transitively; thus, "I _walk_
the horse;" _walk_ is here transitive.
Verbs are inflected by _number_, _person_, _tense_ and _mood_.
_Number_ and _person_ as applied to the verb really belong to the
subject; they are used with the verb to denote whether the assertion is
made regarding one or more than one and whether it is made in reference
to the person speaking, the person spoken to or the person or thing
spoken about.
TENSE
In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time. They have _present
tense_, _past tense_ and _future tense_ with their variations to express
the exact time of action as to an event happening, having happened or yet
to happen.
MOOD
There are four simple moods,--the _Infinitive_, the _Indicative_, the
_Imperative_ and the _Subjunctive_.
The Mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which it is used. Thus
if it is used in its widest sense without reference to person or number,
time or place, it is in the _Infinitive_ Mood; as "To run." Here we are
not told who does the running, when it is done, where it is done or
anything about it.
When a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple question or
make any direct statement, it is in the _Indicative_ Mood. "The boy loves
his book." Here a direct statement is made concerning the boy. "Have you
a pin?" Here a simple question is asked which calls for an answer.
When the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in the
_Imperative_ Mood as, "Go away." "Give me a penny."
When the verb is used to express doubt, supposition or uncertainty or
when some future action depends upon a contingency, it is in the
subjunctive mood; as, "If I come, he shall remain."
Many grammarians include a fifth mood called the _potential_ to express
_power_, _possibility_, _liberty_, _necessity_, _will_ or _duty_. It is
formed by means of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, _ought_ and _must_, but
in all cases it can be resolved into the indicative or subjunctive. Thus,
in "I may write if I choose," "may write" is by some classified as in the
potential mood, but in reality the phrase _I may write_ is an indicative
one while the second clause, _if I choose_, is the expression of a
condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my actual
writing.
Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, sometimes called
the _active_ ending in _ing_ and the past or perfect, often called the
_passive_, ending in _ed_ or _d_.
The _infinitive_ expresses the sense of the verb in a substantive form,
the participles in an adjective form; as "To rise early is healthful."
"An early rising man." "The newly risen sun."
The participle in _ing_ is frequently used as a substantive and
consequently is equivalent to an infinitive; thus, "To rise early is
healthful" and "Rising early is healthful" are the same.
The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, Past Indicative
and Past Participle; as:
Love Loved Loved
Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and then the verb is
said to be defective.
Present Past Passive Participle
Can Could (Wanting)
May Might "
Shall Should "
Will Would "
Ought Ought "
Verbs may also be divided into _principal_ and _auxiliary_. A _principal_
verb is that without which a sentence or clause can contain no assertion
or affirmation. An _auxiliary_ is a verb joined to the root or participles
of a principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision
than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form. Thus, the
sentence, "I am writing an exercise; when I shall have finished it I
shall read it to the class." has no meaning without the principal verbs
_writing_, _finished read_; but the meaning is rendered more definite,
especially with regard to time, by the auxiliary verbs _am_, _have_,
_shall_.
There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., _Be_, _have_, _do_,
_shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, _ought_, and _must_. They are called
helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed.
TO BE
The verb _To Be_ is the most important of the auxiliary verbs. It has
eleven parts, viz., _am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert; be, being_
and _been_.
VOICE
The _active voice_ is that form of the verb which shows the Subject not
being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat _catches_ mice." "Charity
_covers_ a multitude of sins."
The _passive voice_: When the action signified by a transitive verb is
thrown back upon the agent, that is to say, when the subject of the verb
denotes the recipient of the action, the verb is said to be in the
passive voice. "John was loved by his neighbors." Here John the subject
is also the object affected by the loving, the action of the verb is
thrown back on him, hence the compound verb _was loved_ is said to be in
the _passive voice_. The passive voice is formed by putting the perfect
participle of any _transitive_ verb with any of the eleven parts of the
verb _To Be_.
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