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England Under the Tudors
ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS
BY ARTHUR D. INNES
SOMETIME SCHOLAR OF ORIEL COLLEGE, OXFORD
FOURTH EDITION
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
BY THE GENERAL EDITOR
In England, as in France and Germany, the main characteristic of the
last twenty years, from the point of view of the student of history,
has been that new material has been accumulating much faster than it
can be assimilated or absorbed. The standard histories of the last
generation need to be revised, or even to be put aside as obsolete, in
the light of the new information that is coming in so rapidly and in
such vast bulk. But the students and researchers of to-day have shown
little enthusiasm as yet for the task of re-writing history on a large
scale. We see issuing from the press hundreds of monographs,
biographies, editions of old texts, selections from correspondence, or
collections of statistics, mediaeval and modern. But the writers who
(like the late Bishop Stubbs or Professor Samuel Gardiner) undertake
to tell over again the history of a long period, with the aid of all
the newly discovered material, are few indeed. It is comparatively
easy to write a monograph on the life of an individual or a short
episode of history. But the modern student, knowing well the mass of
material that he has to collate, and dreading lest he may make a slip
through overlooking some obscure or newly discovered source, dislikes
to stir beyond the boundary of the subject, or the short period, on
which he has made himself a specialist.
Meanwhile the general reading public continues to ask for standard
histories, and discovers, only too often, that it can find nothing
between school manuals at one end of the scale and minute monographs
at the other. The series of which this volume forms a part is intended
to do something towards meeting this demand. Historians will not sit
down, as once they were wont, to write twenty-volume works in the
style of Hume or Lingard, embracing a dozen centuries of annals. It is
not to be desired that they should--the writer who is most
satisfactory in dealing with Anglo-Saxon antiquities is not likely to
be the one who will best discuss the antecedents of the Reformation,
or the constitutional history of the Stuart period. But something can
be done by judicious co-operation: it is not necessary that a genuine
student should refuse to touch any subject that embraces an epoch
longer than a score of years, nor need history be written as if it
were an encyclopaedia, and cut up into small fragments dealt with by
different hands.
It is hoped that the present series may strike the happy mean, by
dividing up English History into periods that are neither too long to
be dealt with by a single competent specialist, nor so short as to
tempt the writer to indulge in that over-abundance of unimportant
detail which repels the general reader. They are intended to give
something more than a mere outline of our national annals, but they
have little space for controversy or the discussion of sources, save
in periods such as the dark age of the 5th and 6th centuries after
Christ, where the criticism of authorities is absolutely necessary if
we are to arrive at any sound conclusions as to the course of history.
A number of maps are to be found at the end of each volume which, as
it is hoped, will make it unnecessary for the reader to be continually
referring to large historical atlases--tomes which (as we must confess
with regret) are not to be discovered in every private library.
Genealogies and chronological tables of kings are added where
necessary.
C. OMAN
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
THE TUDOR PERIOD, 1485-1603 An era of Revolutions--The Intellectual
Movement--The Reformation and Counter-Reformation--The New World--The
Constitution--Nobility, Clergy, and Gentry--International Relations.
CHAPTER I
HENRY VII (i), 1485-1492-THE NEW DYNASTY 1485. Henry's Title to the
Crown-- Measures to strengthen the Title--1486. Marriage--The King and
his Advisers --Henry's enemies--1487. Lambert Simnel--The State of
Europe--France and Brittany--1488. Henry intervenes
cautiously--England and Spain--1489. Preparations for war with
France--Spanish treaty of Medina del Campo--The Allies inert--1490.
Object of Henry's Foreign Policy--1491. Apparent Defeat --1492.
Henry's bellicose Attitude--Treaty of Etaples.
CHAPTER II
HENRY VII (ii), 1492-1499-PERKIN WARBECK Ireland; 1485--1487-1492. The
Earl of Kildare--1491. Perkin Warbeck's Appearance--Riddle of his
imposture-- 1492-5. Perkin and Margaret of Burgundy--Diplomatic
Intrigues--Ireland: Poynings, 1494-6--1495. Survey of the
Situation--Perkin attempts Invasion --Success of Henry's
Diplomacy--1496. Perkin and the King of Scots--A Scottish
Incursion--1497. The Cornish rising--Its suppression--Perkin's final
effort and failure--The Scottish Truce--The End of Perkin Warbeck:
1497-9--1498. The situation.
CHAPTER III
HENRY VII (iii), 1498-1509-THE DYNASTY ASSURED Scotland and England--
Henry's Scottish Policy--France and Scotland--Relations in
1498--Marriage Negotiations; 1498-1503--Marriage of James IV. and
Margaret, 1503--Spain and England; Marriage Negotiations,
1488-1499--France, 1499--Spain; Marriage Negotiations,
1499-1501--1501; the Spanish Marriage--1502. New Marriage
Schemes--1504. The Papal Dispensation--The Earl of Suffolk;
1499-1505--1505. Henry's Position--Schemes for Re-marriage--1506: The
Archduke Philip in England--Philip's Death--1507-8. Matrimonial
Projects --The League of Cambrai--Wolsey--1509. Death of Henry.
CHAPTER IV
HENRY VII (iv), 1485-1509--ASPECTS OF THE REIGN 1485; Henry's Position
--Studied Legality--Policy of Lenity--Repression of the Nobles--The
Star-Chamber--Henry's Use of Parliament--Financial Exactions--Sources
of Revenue--Henry's Economics--Trade Theories--Commercial Policy--The
Netherlands Trade--The Hansa--The Navigation Acts--Voyages of
Discovery-- The Rural Revolution--The Church--Henry and Rome--Learning
and Letters-- Appreciation.
CHAPTER V
HENRY VIII (i), 1509-1527--EGO ET REX MEUS Europe in 1509--England's
Position--The New King--Inauguration of the reign--Henry and the
Powers-- 1512. Dorset's Expedition--Rise of Wolsey--1513. The French
War--Scotland (1499-1513)--The Flodden Campaign--The Battle--Its
Effect--Recovery of English Prestige--1514. Foreign Intrigues--The
French Alliance and Marriage --1515. Francis I.--Marignano--1516-7.
European changes--1518-9. Wolsey's Success--1519. Charles V.--The
Imperial Election--1520. Wolsey's Triumph-- Rival Policies--Field of
the Cloth of Gold--Wolsey's Aims--Charles V. and Francis I.--Scotland:
1513-1520--1520-1. Affairs Abroad--1521. Buckingham --Wolsey's
Diplomacy--1522. A Papal Election--War with France--Scotland-- 1523.
Progress of the War--Election of Clement VII.--1524. Wolsey's
difficulties--Intrigues in Scotland--1525. Pavia--The Amicable Loan--A
Diplomatic struggle--1526-7. Wolsey's success--A new Factor.
CHAPTER VI
HENRY VIII (ii), 1509-1532--BIRTH OF THE REFORMATION _The Reformation
in England_--Its true Character--Religious Decadence--The Scholar-
Reformers--Ecclesiastical Demoralisation--Monastic Corruption--The
Proofs--Corruption of Doctrine--Evidence from Colet and More--Later
Evidence--Dean Colet--His Sermon: 1512--Erasmus--The _Utopia_: 1516--
Exaggerated attacks--Clerical Privileges--Tentative Reforms--The
Educational Movement--Wolsey and the Reformation--_The Lutheran
Revolt_: 1517--Luther's Defiance--The Diet of Worms; 1521--The German
Peasants' Revolt; 1524--Its Effect in England--1525. The Empire and
the Papacy--The Sack of Rome, 1527--Diet of Augsburg, 1530-The Swiss
Reformers; 1520-1530--English Heretics Abroad--Contrasted Aims.
CHAPTER VII
HENRY VIII (iii), 1527-1529--THE FALL OF WOLSEY "The King's
Affair"--Story of the Marriage--Anne Boleyn--1527. The King
Prepares--Theoretical Excuses--The Need of an Heir--The Plea of
Invalidity--Conjunction of Incentives--The Orleans
Betrothal--Conclusions--The first Plan--The second Plan--Knight's
Mission--Its Failure--The Pope and the Cardinal--1528. Gardiner's
Mission--Wolsey's Critical Position--Campeggio and Wolsey-- Henry's
Attitude--1529. The Trial--The Storm Gathers--The Storm Breaks--
Wolsey's fall--1530. Wolsey's Death--His Achievement--Appreciation of
Wolsey.
CHAPTER VIII
HENRY VIII (iv), 1529-1533--THE BREACH WITH ROME 1529. No Revolt Yet--
Growth of Anti-clericalism--Thomas Cranmer--Appeal to the Universities
--The New Parliament--Thomas Cromwell--Pope, Clergy, and King--Double
Campaign Opens--1530. Answer of Universities--Preoccupation of the
Clergy--Menace of Praemunire--1531. "Only Supreme Head"--Proceedings
in Parliament--1532. Parliament--Supplication against the Ordinaries--
Resistance of Clergy--"Submission of the Clergy"--Mortmain, Benefit of
Clergy, and Annates--The Powers and the Divorce--The Turn of the
Year-- 1533. The Crisis--Restraint of Appeals--Cranmer Archbishop--The
Decisive Breach.
CHAPTER IX
HENRY VIII (v), 1533-1540--MALLEUS MONACHORUM 1533. Ecclesiastical
Parties --Pope or King?--1534. Confirmatory Acts--The Pope's Last
Word--The Nun of Kent--The Act of Succession--The Oath Refused--The
"Bishop of Rome"-- Parliament--Treasons Act--1529-1534: The New
Policy--Thomas Cromwell--1535. More and Fisher--Cromwell
Vicar--General--The German Lutherans--Overtures-- Visitation of the
Monasteries--1536. Suppression of Lesser Houses--The Evidence--The
Black Book--The Consequent Commission--The Policy--Anne Boleyn
Threatened--Her Condemnation and Death--The Succession--Punishment of
Heresy--The Progressive Movement--The Ten Articles--The Lincolnshire
Rising--The Pilgrimage of Grace--Aske Beguiled--1537. Suppression of
the Rising--Turned to Account--Scotland, 1533-6--1536-7. Naval
Measures--1537. An Heir--1538. Diplomatic Moves--The Exeter
Conspiracy--1539. Cromwell Strikes--Menace of Invasion--The King and
Lutheranism--The Six Articles-- Final Suppression of
Monasteries--Royal Proclamations Act--Anne of Cleves-- 1540. The
Marriage--Fall of Cromwell.
CHAPTER X
HENRY VIII (vi), 1540-1547--HENRY'S LAST YEARS 1540. Katharine
Howard--The King his own Minister--England and the Powers--Scotland
and England; 1541-- Cardinal Beton--1542--Solway Moss--1543. Henry's
Scottish Policy--Alliance with Charles V.--French War--1544. Domestic
Affairs--Intrigues in Scotland --Sack of Edinburgh--French War--Peace
of Crepy--1545. Ancram Moor--A French Armada--1546. Peace
concluded--1532-1549. _Europe_--Lutherans and the Papacy--Conference
of Ratisbon-Council of Trent: first stages-- Death of Luther-Charles
and the League of Schmalkald--The Jesuit Order-- Calvin--_England_:
the Ecclesiastical Revolution--Progressives and Reactionaries--1543.
The King's Book-1546. Surrey--1547. Death of Henry.
CHAPTER XI
HENRY VIII (vii), 1509-1547--ASPECTS OF HENRY'S REIGN _Ireland_:
1509-1520--Surrey in Ireland, 1520--Irish Policy,
1520-1534--Fitzgerald's Revolt--1535-1540: Lord Leonard Grey--1540:
St. Leger--"King of Ireland"-- _England_: Wolsey's work--The Army--The
Navy--The New World-- Absolutism--The Parliamentary
Sanction--Depression of the Nobles-- Parliament and the
Purse--Finance--The Land--Learning and Letters--The _Utopia_--Surrey
and Wyatt--_Appreciation of Henry VIII._: Morals and
Character--Abilities and Achievement--Dominant Personality--
Conclusions.
CHAPTER XII
EDWARD VI (i), 1547-1549--THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET 1547. The New
Government-- Relations with France and Scotland--with Charles
V.--Somerset's Scottish Policy--Pinkie--The Advanced
Reformers--Benevolent Legislation-- Ecclesiastical Legislation--1548.
Progress of the Reformation--Somerset's Ideas--The French in
Scotland--The Augsburg Interim--Parliament--1549. A New Liturgy--The
Treason of the Lord Admiral: 1547-9--1549--Troubles in the
Provinces--The Western Rising--Ket's Insurrection--The Protector's
Attitude--The Council attacks him--His Fall--Ireland: St. Leger and
Bellingham.
CHAPTER XIII
EDWARD VI (ii), 1549-1553--THE DUDLEY ASCENDANCY 1549. Foreign
Relations-- State of England--1550. Terms with France--Protestant zeal
of Warwick-- Treasons Act--Protestant Fanaticism-1551. The Council and
Charles V.--His Difficulties--Groups among the
Reformers--Somerset--His final overthrow-- 1552. Execution of
Somerset--Pacification of Passau--English Neutrality-- The
Reformation: its Limits hitherto--Revision of the Liturgy--
Nonconformity--Parliament--1553. A New Parliament--Northumberland's
Programme--Plot to change the Succession--Adhesion of King and
Council-- Death of Edward VI.--Willoughby and Chancellor.
CHAPTER XIV
MARY (i), 1553-1555-THE SPANISH MARRIAGE The Marian Tragedies--1553.
Proclamation of Queen Jane--The People support Mary--Collapse of the
Plot-- Mary's Leniency--Cause of the Popular Loyalty--Problems:
Marriage and the Reformation--Possible Claimants--Moderate
Reaction--Proposed Spanish Match --Parliament: Repeal of Edward's
Legislation--1554. Wyatt's Rebellion and the Lady
Elizabeth--Subsequent Severities--The Marriage Treaty-Pole, Renard,
and Gardiner--Public Tension--Parliament; Reconciliation with Rome
--Reaction consummated, 1555.
CHAPTER XV
MARY (ii), 1555-1558-THE PERSECUTION Mary's early Policy--The
Persecution-- Who was Responsible?--Comparison with other
Persecutions--Some Characteristic Features--1555. The First
Martyrs--Trial of Cranmer--Ridley and Latimer--Fate of Cranmer--His
Record and Character--Policy of Philip-- Paul IV.--Mary disappointed
of an Heir--A New Parliament--Gardiner's Death and Character--Mary's
Difficulties--1556. The Dudley Conspiracy--Foreign
Complications--1557. War with France--1558. Loss of Calais--National
Depression--Mary's Death and Character.
CHAPTER XVI
ELIZABETH (i), 1558-1561-A PASSAGE PERILOUS
1558. Accession--Mary Stewart's Claim--Strength of Elizabeth's
Position-- Sir William Cecil--Finance--Philip II. and Elizabeth's
Marriage--The Religious Question--A Protestant Policy--1559.
Parliament: Act of Supremacy--The Prayer-Book--France and Peace--State
of Scotland--Arran and Elizabeth--The Archduke Charles--Wynter in the
Forth--1560. Difficulties of France--Vacillations of Elizabeth--Siege
of Leith--Treaty of Edinburgh-- Elizabeth's Methods--The Dudley
Imbroglio--The Huguenots--The Pope--1561. Return of Mary to Scotland.
CHAPTER XVII
ELIZABETH (ii), 1561-1568-QUEENS AND SUITORS 1561. The
Situation--Council of Trent--France; State of Parties--1561-8. France:
Catholics and Huguenots --The Netherlands: Philip's Policy--Prelude to
War--1561. The Queens' suitors--1562. Mary in Scotland--1562-3.
Elizabeth and the Huguenots--The English Succession-1564. Darnley and
Others--1565. The Darnley Marriage-- Mary and Murray--1566. The Murder
of Rizzio--1567. Kirk o' Field--The Bothwell Marriage--Mary at Loch
Leven--Murray Regent--1568. Langside, and the Flight to
England--1562-8. Protestantism of Elizabeth's Government-- Religious
Parties--1566-7. Parliament and the Queen's Marriage--The Queen and
the Archduke.
CHAPTER XVIII
ELIZABETH (iii), 1568-1572--THE CATHOLIC CHALLENGE 1568. Mary in
England--A Commission of Enquiry--Proceedings at York--Attitude of
Philip--The Commission at Westminster--Comment on the Enquiry--Seizure
of Spanish Treasure--1569. The Incident passed over--The Northern
Rebellion--1570. Murder of Murray--The Bull of Deposition--The Anjou
Match--1570-1. The Ridolfi Plot--1571. Parliament--Collapse of the
Anjou Match--The Ridolfi Plot Develops--1572. Parliament and Mary
Stewart--Lepanto--The Netherlands Revolt--The Alencon Match--St.
Bartholomew.
CHAPTER XIX
ELIZABETH (iv), 1572-1578--VARIUM ET MUTABILE Elizabeth's
Diplomacy--The Queen's Subjects--Development of Protestantism--1572.
Katharine de Medici --The Aim of Elizabeth--England and the
Massacre--Spain seeks Amity--1573. A Spanish Alliance--Scotland: End
of the Marian Party--The Netherlands, France, and Spain--The
Netherlands, England, and Spain--1574. Amicable Relations of England
and Spain--1575. A Deadlock--1576. Attitude of the Nation--The Queen
evades War--Alencon and the Huguenots--The Netherlands and Don
John--Elizabeth's Attitude--1577. The Political Kaleidoscope--The
Archduke Matthias--1578. Mendoza--Orange and Alencon--Death of Don
John-- NOTE: The Portuguese Succession.
CHAPTER XX
ELIZABETH (v), 1558-1578--IRISH AND ENGLISH 1549-58--1558. Shan
O'Neill-- The Antrim Scots--1560-1. Shan and the Government--1562.
Shan in England-- 1563-5. Shan's supremacy in Ulster recognised--1566.
Sir Henry Sidney Deputy--Overthrow of O'Neill--Catholicism in Irish
Politics--1568. The Colonising of Munster--1569. Insurrection in
Munster--Ireland and Philip-- Experimental Presidencies--1573-4. Essex
in Ulster--1576-8. Sidney's second Deputyship.
CHAPTER XXI
ELIZABETH (vi), 1578-1583--THE PAPAL ATTACK 1579. The Union of
Utrecht-- 1578. The Matrimonial Juggle--Alencon's wooing--1579.
Popular Hostility to the Match--Loyalty to Elizabeth--Yea and Nay--The
Papal Plan of Campaign-- 1580. Philip annexes Portugal--_Ireland_:
1579; the Desmond Rising-- 1580: Fire and Sword--Development of the
Rebellion--Smerwick: and after-- _Scotland_: 1579-1581--_England_:
1580--The Jesuit Mission-- Walsingham at Work--1581. An Anti-papal
Parliament--Alencon redivivus--His visit to England--1582. Alencon in
the Netherlands--1583. Exit Alencon--Scotland.
CHAPTER XXII
ELIZABETH (vii), 1583-1587-THE END OF QUEEN MARY 1583. Throgmorton's
Conspiracy--Catholics abroad sanguine--Division in their Counsels--The
Plot discovered--1584. Assassination of Orange--The
"Association"--1585. Its Ratification--France: The Holy
League--Elizabeth's agreement with the States--Drake's Cartagena
Raid--Elizabeth's Intrigues-1586. Leicester in the Netherlands--The
Trapping of Mary--Babington's Plot--Trial of the Queen of
Scots--Elizabeth and Mary--1587. Execution of Mary.