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The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Complete
The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci
Volume 1
Translated by Jean Paul Richter
1888
PREFACE.
A singular fatality has ruled the destiny of nearly all the most
famous of Leonardo da Vinci's works. Two of the three most important
were never completed, obstacles having arisen during his life-time,
which obliged him to leave them unfinished; namely the Sforza Monument
and the Wall-painting of the Battle of Anghiari, while the third--the
picture of the Last Supper at Milan--has suffered irremediable injury
from decay and the repeated restorations to which it was recklessly
subjected during the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries. Nevertheless, no
other picture of the Renaissance has become so wellknown and popular
through copies of every description.
Vasari says, and rightly, in his Life of Leonardo, "that he laboured
much more by his word than in fact or by deed", and the biographer
evidently had in his mind the numerous works in Manuscript which have
been preserved to this day. To us, now, it seems almost inexplicable
that these valuable and interesting original texts should have
remained so long unpublished, and indeed forgotten. It is certain that
during the XVIth and XVIIth centuries their exceptional value was
highly appreciated. This is proved not merely by the prices which they
commanded, but also by the exceptional interest which has been
attached to the change of ownership of merely a few pages of
Manuscript.
That, notwithstanding this eagerness to possess the Manuscripts, their
contents remained a mystery, can only be accounted for by the many and
great difficulties attending the task of deciphering them. The
handwriting is so peculiar that it requires considerable practice to
read even a few detached phrases, much more to solve with any
certainty the numerous difficulties of alternative readings, and to
master the sense as a connected whole. Vasari observes with reference
to Leonardos writing: "he wrote backwards, in rude characters, and
with the left hand, so that any one who is not practised in reading
them, cannot understand them". The aid of a mirror in reading reversed
handwriting appears to me available only for a first experimental
reading. Speaking from my own experience, the persistent use of it is
too fatiguing and inconvenient to be practically advisable,
considering the enormous mass of Manuscripts to be deciphered. And as,
after all, Leonardo's handwriting runs backwards just as all Oriental
character runs backwards--that is to say from right to left--the
difficulty of reading direct from the writing is not insuperable. This
obvious peculiarity in the writing is not, however, by any means the
only obstacle in the way of mastering the text. Leonardo made use of
an orthography peculiar to himself; he had a fashion of amalgamating
several short words into one long one, or, again, he would quite
arbitrarily divide a long word into two separate halves; added to this
there is no punctuation whatever to regulate the division and
construction of the sentences, nor are there any accents--and the
reader may imagine that such difficulties were almost sufficient to
make the task seem a desperate one to a beginner. It is therefore not
surprising that the good intentions of some of Leonardo s most
reverent admirers should have failed.
Leonardos literary labours in various departments both of Art and of
Science were those essentially of an enquirer, hence the analytical
method is that which he employs in arguing out his investigations and
dissertations. The vast structure of his scientific theories is
consequently built up of numerous separate researches, and it is much
to be lamented that he should never have collated and arranged them.
His love for detailed research--as it seems to me--was the reason that
in almost all the Manuscripts, the different paragraphs appear to us
to be in utter confusion; on one and the same page, observations on
the most dissimilar subjects follow each other without any connection.
A page, for instance, will begin with some principles of astronomy, or
the motion of the earth; then come the laws of sound, and finally some
precepts as to colour. Another page will begin with his investigations
on the structure of the intestines, and end with philosophical remarks
as to the relations of poetry to painting; and so forth.
Leonardo himself lamented this confusion, and for that reason I do not
think that the publication of the texts in the order in which they
occur in the originals would at all fulfil his intentions. No reader
could find his way through such a labyrinth; Leonardo himself could
not have done it.
Added to this, more than half of the five thousand manuscript pages
which now remain to us, are written on loose leaves, and at present
arranged in a manner which has no justification beyond the fancy of
the collector who first brought them together to make volumes of more
or less extent. Nay, even in the volumes, the pages of which were
numbered by Leonardo himself, their order, so far as the connection of
the texts was concerned, was obviously a matter of indifference to
him. The only point he seems to have kept in view, when first writing
down his notes, was that each observation should be complete to the
end on the page on which it was begun. The exceptions to this rule are
extremely few, and it is certainly noteworthy that we find in such
cases, in bound volumes with his numbered pages, the written
observations: "turn over", "This is the continuation of the previous
page", and the like. Is not this sufficient to prove that it was only
in quite exceptional cases that the writer intended the consecutive
pages to remain connected, when he should, at last, carry out the
often planned arrangement of his writings?
What this final arrangement was to be, Leonardo has in most cases
indicated with considerable completeness. In other cases this
authoritative clue is wanting, but the difficulties arising from this
are not insuperable; for, as the subject of the separate paragraphs is
always distinct and well defined in itself, it is quite possible to
construct a well-planned whole, out of the scattered materials of his
scientific system, and I may venture to state that I have devoted
especial care and thought to the due execution of this responsible
task.
The beginning of Leonardo's literary labours dates from about his
thirty-seventh year, and he seems to have carried them on without any
serious interruption till his death. Thus the Manuscripts that remain
represent a period of about thirty years. Within this space of time
his handwriting altered so little that it is impossible to judge from
it of the date of any particular text. The exact dates, indeed, can
only be assigned to certain note-books in which the year is
incidentally indicated, and in which the order of the leaves has not
been altered since Leonardo used them. The assistance these afford for
a chronological arrangement of the Manuscripts is generally self
evident. By this clue I have assigned to the original Manuscripts now
scattered through England, Italy and France, the order of their
production, as in many matters of detail it is highly important to be
able to verify the time and place at which certain observations were
made and registered. For this purpose the Bibliography of the
Manuscripts given at the end of Vol. II, may be regarded as an Index,
not far short of complete, of all Leonardo s literary works now
extant. The consecutive numbers (from 1 to 1566) at the head of each
passage in this work, indicate their logical sequence with reference
to the subjects; while the letters and figures to the left of each
paragraph refer to the original Manuscript and number of the page, on
which that particular passage is to be found. Thus the reader, by
referring to the List of Manuscripts at the beginning of Volume I, and
to the Bibliography at the end of Volume II, can, in every instance,
easily ascertain, not merely the period to which the passage belongs,
but also exactly where it stood in the original document. Thus, too,
by following the sequence of the numbers in the Bibliographical index,
the reader may reconstruct the original order of the Manuscripts and
recompose the various texts to be found on the original sheets--so
much of it, that is to say, as by its subject-matter came within the
scope of this work. It may, however, be here observed that Leonardo s
Manuscripts contain, besides the passages here printed, a great number
of notes and dissertations on Mechanics, Physics, and some other
subjects, many of which could only be satisfactorily dealt with by
specialists. I have given as complete a review of these writings as
seemed necessary in the Bibliographical notes.
In 1651, Raphael Trichet Dufresne, of Paris, published a selection
from Leonardo's writings on painting, and this treatise became so
popular that it has since been reprinted about two-and-twenty times,
and in six different languages. But none of these editions were
derived from the original texts, which were supposed to have been
lost, but from early copies, in which Leonardo's text had been more or
less mutilated, and which were all fragmentary. The oldest and on the
whole the best copy of Leonardo's essays and precepts on Painting is
in the Vatican Library; this has been twice printed, first by Manzi,
in 1817, and secondly by Ludwig, in 1882. Still, this ancient copy,
and the published editions of it, contain much for which it would be
rash to hold Leonardo responsible, and some portions--such as the very
important rules for the proportions of the human figure--are wholly
wanting; on the other hand they contain passages which, if they are
genuine, cannot now be verified from any original Manuscript extant.
These copies, at any rate neither give us the original order of the
texts, as written by Leonardo, nor do they afford any substitute, by
connecting them on a rational scheme; indeed, in their chaotic
confusion they are anything rather than satisfactory reading. The
fault, no doubt, rests with the compiler of the Vatican copy, which
would seem to be the source whence all the published and extensively
known texts were derived; for, instead of arranging the passages
himself, he was satisfied with recording a suggestion for a final
arrangement of them into eight distinct parts, without attempting to
carry out his scheme. Under the mistaken idea that this plan of
distribution might be that, not of the compiler, but of Leonardo
himself, the various editors, down to the present day, have very
injudiciously continued to adopt this order--or rather disorder.
I, like other enquirers, had given up the original Manuscript of the
Trattato della Pittura for lost, till, in the beginning of 1880, I was
enabled, by the liberality of Lord Ashburnham, to inspect his
Manuscripts, and was so happy as to discover among them the original
text of the best-known portion of the Trattato in his magnificent
library at Ashburnham Place. Though this discovery was of a fragment
only--but a considerable fragment--inciting me to further search, it
gave the key to the mystery which had so long enveloped the first
origin of all the known copies of the Trattato. The extensive
researches I was subsequently enabled to prosecute, and the results of
which are combined in this work, were only rendered possible by the
unrestricted permission granted me to investigate all the Manuscripts
by Leonardo dispersed throughout Europe, and to reproduce the highly
important original sketches they contain, by the process of
"photogravure". Her Majesty the Queen graciously accorded me special
permission to copy for publication the Manuscripts at the Royal
Library at Windsor. The Commission Centrale Administrative de
l'Institut de France, Paris, gave me, in the most liberal manner, in
answer to an application from Sir Frederic Leighton, P. R. A.,
Corresponding member of the Institut, free permission to work for
several months in their private collection at deciphering the
Manuscripts preserved there. The same favour which Lord Ashburnham had
already granted me was extended to me by the Earl of Leicester, the
Marchese Trivulsi, and the Curators of the Ambrosian Library at Milan,
by the Conte Manzoni at Rome and by other private owners of
Manuscripts of Leonardo's; as also by the Directors of the Louvre at
Paris; the Accademia at Venice; the Uffizi at Florence; the Royal
Library at Turin; and the British Museum, and the South Kensington
Museum. I am also greatly indebted to the Librarians of these various
collections for much assistance in my labours; and more particularly
to Monsieur Louis Lalanne, of the Institut de France, the Abbate
Ceriani, of the Ambrosian Library, Mr. Maude Thompson, Keeper of
Manuscripts at the British Museum, Mr. Holmes, the Queens Librarian at
Windsor, the Revd Vere Bayne, Librarian of Christ Church College at
Oxford, and the Revd A. Napier, Librarian to the Earl of Leicester at
Holkham Hall.
In correcting the Italian text for the press, I have had the advantage
of valuable advice from the Commendatore Giov. Morelli, Senatore del
Regno, and from Signor Gustavo Frizzoni, of Milan. The translation,
under many difficulties, of the Italian text into English, is mainly
due to Mrs. R. C. Bell; while the rendering of several of the most
puzzling and important passages, particularly in the second half of
Vol. I, I owe to the indefatigable interest taken in this work by Mr.
E. J. Poynter R. A. Finally I must express my thanks to Mr. Alfred
Marks, of Long Ditton, who has most kindly assisted me throughout in
the revision of the proof sheets.
The notes and dissertations on the texts on Architecture in Vol. II I
owe to my friend Baron Henri de Geymuller, of Paris.
I may further mention with regard to the illustrations, that the
negatives for the production of the "photo-gravures" by Monsieur
Dujardin of Paris were all taken direct from the originals.
It is scarcely necessary to add that most of the drawings here
reproduced in facsimile have never been published before. As I am now,
on the termination of a work of several years' duration, in a position
to review the general tenour of Leonardos writings, I may perhaps be
permitted to add a word as to my own estimate of the value of their
contents. I have already shown that it is due to nothing but a
fortuitous succession of unfortunate circumstances, that we should
not, long since, have known Leonardo, not merely as a Painter, but as
an Author, a Philosopher, and a Naturalist. There can be no doubt that
in more than one department his principles and discoveries were
infinitely more in accord with the teachings of modern science, than
with the views of his contemporaries. For this reason his
extraordinary gifts and merits are far more likely to be appreciated
in our own time than they could have been during the preceding
centuries. He has been unjustly accused of having squandered his
powers, by beginning a variety of studies and then, having hardly
begun, throwing them aside. The truth is that the labours of three
centuries have hardly sufficed for the elucidation of some of the
problems which occupied his mighty mind.
Alexander von Humboldt has borne witness that "he was the first to
start on the road towards the point where all the impressions of our
senses converge in the idea of the Unity of Nature" Nay, yet more may
be said. The very words which are inscribed on the monument of
Alexander von Humboldt himself, at Berlin, are perhaps the most
appropriate in which we can sum up our estimate of Leonardo's genius:
"Majestati naturae par ingenium."
LONDON, April 1883.
F. P. R.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
PROLEGOMENA AND GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK ON PAINTING
Clavis Sigillorum and Index of Manuscripts.--The author's intention to
publish his MSS. (1).--The preparation of the MSS. for publication
(2).--Admonition to readers (3).--The disorder in the MSS.
(4).--Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS. treating of particular
subjects (5--8).--General introductions to the book on painting
(9--13).--The plan of the book on painting (14--17).--The use of the
book on painting (18).--Necessity of theoretical knowledge (19,
20).--The function of the eye (21--23).--Variability of the eye
(24).--Focus of sight (25).--Differences of perception by one eye and
by both eyes (26--29).--The comparative size of the image depends on
the amount of light (30--39).
II.
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
General remarks on perspective (40--41).--The elements of
perspective:--of the point (42--46).--Of the line (47--48).--The
nature of the outline (49).--Definition of perspective (50).--The
perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye
(51).--Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight
(52--55).--The relations of the distance point to the vanishing point
(55--56).--How to measure the pyramid of vision (57).--The production
of the pyramid of vision (58--64).--Proof by experiment
(65--66).--General conclusions (67).--That the contrary is impossible
(68).--A parallel case (69).--The function of the eye, as explained by
the camera obscura (70--71).--The practice of perspective
(72--73).--Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye (74--75).--The
inversion of the images (76).--The intersection of the rays
(77--82).--Demonstration of perspective by means of a vertical glass
plane (83--85.)--The angle of sight varies with the distance
(86--88).--Opposite pyramids in juxtaposition (89).--On simple and
complex perspective (90).--The proper distance of objects from the eye
(91--92).--The relative size of objects with regard to their distance
from the eye (93--98).--The apparent size of objects denned by
calculation (99--106).--On natural perspective (107--109).
III.
SIX BOOKS ON LIGHT AND SHADE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.--Prolegomena (110).--Scheme of the books on
light and shade (111).--Different principles and plans of treatment
(112--116).--Different sorts of light (117--118).--Definition of the
nature of shadows (119--122).--Of the various kinds of shadows
(123--125).--Of the various kinds of light (126--127).--General
remarks (128--129).--FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the nature of
light (130--131).--The difference between light and lustre
(132--135).--The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies (136).
--Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room
(137--140).--Light and shadow with regard to the position of the eye
(141--145).--The law of the incidence of light (146--147).--SECOND
BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--Gradations of strength in the shadows
(148--149).--On the intensity of shadows as dependent on the distance
from the light (150--152).--On the proportion of light and shadow
(153--157).--THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--Definition of derived
shadow (158--159).--Different sorts of derived shadows (160--162).--On
the relation of derived and primary shadow (163--165).--On the shape
of derived shadows (166--174).--On the relative intensity of derived
shadows (175--179).--Shadow as produced by two lights of different
size (180--181).--The effect of light at different distances
(182).--Further complications in the derived shadows
(183--187).--FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the shape of cast
shadows (188--191).--On the outlines of cast shadows (192--195).--On
the relative size of cast shadows (196. 197).--Effects on cast shadows
by the tone of the back ground (198).--A disputed proposition
(199).--On the relative depth of cast shadows (200--202).--FIFTH BOOK
ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--Principles of reflection (203. 204).--On
reverberation (205).--Reflection on water (206. 207).--Experiments
with the mirror (208--210).--Appendix:--On shadows in movement
(211--212).--SIXTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--The effect of rays
passing through holes (213. 214).--On gradation of shadows (215.
216).--On relative proportion of light and shadows (216--221).
IV.
PERSPECTIVE OF DISAPPEARANCE
Definition (222. 223).--An illustration by experiment (224).--A
guiding rule (225).---An experiment (226).--On indistinctness at short
distances (227--231).--On indistinctness at great distances
(232--234).--The importance of light and shade in the Prospettiva de'
perdimenti (235--239).--The effect of light or dark backgrounds on the
apparent size of objects (240--250).--Propositions on Prospettiva de'
perdimenti from MS. C. (250--262).
V.
THEORY OF COLOURS
The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each
other (263--271).--Combination of different colours in cast shadows
(272).--The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273. 274).--On
the colours of derived shadows (275. 276).--On the nature of colours
(277. 278).--On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280).--On the
reflection of colours (281--283).--On the use of dark and light
colours in painting (284--286).--On the colours of the rainbow
(287--288).
VI.
PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE
General rules (289--291).--An exceptional case (292).--An experiment
(293).--The practice of the Prospettiva de' colori (294).--The rules
of aerial perspective (295--297).--On the relative density of the
atmosphere (298--299).--On the colour of the atmosphere (300--307).
VII.
ON THE PROPORTIONS AND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE
Preliminary observations (308. 309).--Proportions of the head and face
(310--318).--Proportions of the head seen in front
(319--321).--Proportions of the foot (322--323).--Relative proportions
of the hand and foot (324).--Relative proportions of the foot and of
the face (325--327).--Proportions of the leg (328--331).--On the
central point of the whole body (332).--The relative proportions of
the torso and of the whole figure (333).--The relative proportions of
the head and of the torso (334).--The relative proportions of the
torso and of the leg (335. 336).--The relative proportions of the
torso and of the foot (337).--The proportions of the whole figure
(338--341).--The torso from the front and back (342).--Vitruvius'
scheme of proportions (343).--The arm and head (344).--Proportions of
the arm (345--349).--The movement of the arm (350--354).--The movement
of the torso (355--361).--The proportions vary at different ages
(362--367).--The movement of the human figure (368--375).--Of walking
up and down (375--379).--On the human body in action (380--388).--On
hair falling down in curls (389).--On draperies
(390--392).
VIII.
BOTANY FOR PAINTERS, AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE PAINTING
Classification of trees (393).--The relative thickness of the branches
to the trunk (394--396).--The law of proportion in the growth of the
branches (397--402).--The direction of growth (403--407).--The forms
of trees (408--411).--The insertion of the leaves (412--419).--Light
on branches and leaves (420--422).--The proportions of light and shade
in a leaf (423--426).--Of the transparency of leaves (427--429).--The
gradations of shade and colour in leaves (430--434).--A classification
of trees according to their colours (435).--The proportions of light
and shade in trees (436--440).--The distribution of light and shade
with reference to the position of the spectator (441--443).--The
effects of morning light (444--448).--The effects of midday light
(449).--The appearance of trees in the distance (450--451).--The cast
shadow of trees (452. 453).--Light and shade on groups of trees
(454--457).--On the treatment of light for landscapes (458--464).--On
the treatment of light for views of towns (465--469).--The effect of
wind on trees (470--473).--Light and shade on clouds (474--477).--On
images reflected in water (478).--Of rainbows and rain (479. 480).--Of
flower seeds (481).
IX.
THE PRACTICE OF PAINTING
I. MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.--How to ascertain the
dispositions for an artistic career (482).--The course of instruction
for an artist (483--485).--The study of the antique (486. 487).--The
necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).--How to acquire practice
(490).--Industry and thoroughness the first conditions
(491--493.)--The artist's private life and choice of company (493.
494).--The distribution of time for studying (495-- 497).--On the
productive power of minor artists (498--501).--A caution against
one-sided study (502).--How to acquire universality
(503--506).--Useful games and exercises (507. 508).--II. THE ARTIST'S
STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF PERSPECTIVE.--ON
JUDGING OF A PICTURE.--On the size of the studio (509).--On the
construction of windows (510--512).--On the best light for painting
(513--520).--On various helps in preparing a picture (521--530).--On
the management of works (531. 532).--On the limitations of painting
(533--535).--On the choice of a position (536. 537).--The apparent
size of figures in a picture (538. 539).--The right position of the
artist, when painting and of the spectator (540--547).--III. THE
PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE AND AERIAL
PERSPECTIVE.--Gradations of light and shade (548).--On the choice of
light for a picture (549--554).--The distribution of light and shade
(555--559).--The juxtaposition of light and shade (560. 561).--On the
lighting of the background (562--565).--On the lighting of white
objects (566).--The methods of aerial perspective (567--570).--IV. OF
PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING.--Of sketching figures and portraits
(571. 572).--The position of the head (573).--Of the light on the face
(574--576).--General suggestions for historical pictures
(577--581).--How to represent the differences of age and sex (582.
583).--Of representing the emotions (584).--Of representing imaginary
animals (585).--The selection of forms (586--591).--How to pose
figures (592).--Of appropriate gestures (593--600).--V. SUGGESTIONS
FOR COMPOSITIONS.--Of painting battle-pieces (601--603).--Of depicting
night-scenes (604).--Of depicting a tempest (605. 606).--Of
representing the deluge (607--609).--Of depicting natural phenomena
(610. 611).--VI. THE ARTIST'S MATERIALS.--Of chalk and paper
(612--617).--On the preparation and use of colours (618--627).--Of
preparing the panel (628).--The preparation of oils (629--634).--On
varnishes (635-- 637).--On chemical _materials (638--650).--VII.
PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING.--The relation of art
and nature (651. 652).--Painting is superior to poetry (653.
654).--Painting is superior to sculpture (655. 656).--Aphorisms
(657--659).--On the history of painting (660. 661).--The painter's
scope (662).
X.
STUDIES AND SKETCHES FOR PICTURES AND DECORATIONS
On pictures of the Madonna (663).--Bernardo di Bandino's portrait
(664).--Notes on the Last Supper (665--668).--On the battle of
Anghiari (669).--Allegorical representations referring to the duke of
Milan (670--673).--Allegorical representations
(674--678).--Arrangement of a picture (679).--List of drawings
(680).--Mottoes and Emblems (681--702).
The author's intention to publish his MSS.
1.
How by a certain machine many may stay some time under water. And how
and wherefore I do not describe my method of remaining under water and
how long I can remain without eating. And I do not publish nor divulge
these, by reason of the evil nature of men, who would use them for
assassinations at the bottom of the sea by destroying ships, and
sinking them, together with the men in them. Nevertheless I will
impart others, which are not dangerous because the mouth of the tube
through which you breathe is above the water, supported on air sacks
or cork.
[Footnote: The leaf on which this passage is written, is headed with
the words _Casi_ 39, and most of these cases begin with the word
'_Come_', like the two here given, which are the 26th and 27th. 7.
_Sughero_. In the Codex Antlanticus 377a; 1170a there is a sketch,
drawn with the pen, representing a man with a tube in his mouth, and
at the farther end of the tube a disk. By the tube the word '_Channa_'
is written, and by the disk the word '_sughero_'.]
The preparation of the MSS. for publication.
2.
When you put together the science of the motions of water, remember to
include under each proposition its application and use, in order that
this science may not be useless.--
[Footnote: A comparatively small portion of Leonardo's notes on
water-power was published at Bologna in 1828, under the title: "_Del
moto e misura dell'Acqua, di L. da Vinci_".]
Admonition to readers.
3.
Let no man who is not a Mathematician read the elements of my work.
The disorder in the MSS.
4.
Begun at Florence, in the house of Piero di Braccio Martelli, on the
22nd day of March 1508. And this is to be a collection without order,
taken from many papers which I have copied here, hoping to arrange
them later each in its place, according to the subjects of which they
may treat. But I believe that before I am at the end of this [task] I
shall have to repeat the same things several times; for which, O
reader! do not blame me, for the subjects are many and memory cannot
retain them [all] and say: 'I will not write this because I wrote it
before.' And if I wished to avoid falling into this fault, it would be
necessary in every case when I wanted to copy [a passage] that, not to
repeat myself, I should read over all that had gone before; and all
the more since the intervals are long between one time of writing and
the next.
[Footnote: 1. In the history of Florence in the early part of the
XVIth century _Piero di Braccio Martelli_ is frequently mentioned as
_Commissario della Signoria_. He was famous for his learning and at
his death left four books on Mathematics ready for the press; comp.
LITTA, _Famiglie celebri Italiane_, _Famiglia Martelli di
Firenze_.--In the Official Catalogue of MSS. in the Brit. Mus., New
Series Vol. I., where this passage is printed, _Barto_ has been
wrongly given for Braccio.
2. _addi 22 di marzo 1508_. The Christian era was computed in Florence
at that time from the Incarnation (Lady day, March 25th). Hence this
should be 1509 by our reckoning.
3. _racolto tratto di molte carte le quali io ho qui copiate_. We must
suppose that Leonardo means that he has copied out his own MSS. and
not those of others. The first thirteen leaves of the MS. in the Brit.
Mus. are a fair copy of some notes on physics.]
Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS treating of particular
subjects.(5-8).
5.
Of digging a canal. Put this in the Book of useful inventions and in
proving them bring forward the propositions already proved. And this
is the proper order; since if you wished to show the usefulness of any
plan you would be obliged again to devise new machines to prove its
utility and thus would confuse the order of the forty Books and also
the order of the diagrams; that is to say you would have to mix up
practice with theory, which would produce a confused and incoherent
work.
6.
I am not to blame for putting forward, in the course of my work on
science, any general rule derived from a previous conclusion.
7.
The Book of the science of Mechanics must precede the Book of useful
inventions.--Have your books on anatomy bound! [Footnote: 4. The
numerous notes on anatomy written on loose leaves and now in the Royal
collection at Windsor can best be classified in four Books,
corresponding to the different character and size of the paper. When
Leonardo speaks of '_li tua libri di notomia_', he probably means the
MSS. which still exist; if this hypothesis is correct the present
condition of these leaves might seem to prove that he only carried out
his purpose with one of the Books on anatomy. A borrowed book on
Anatomy is mentioned in F.O.]
8.
The order of your book must proceed on this plan: first simple beams,
then (those) supported from below, then suspended in part, then wholly
[suspended]. Then beams as supporting other weights [Footnote: 4.
Leonardo's notes on Mechanics are extraordinarily numerous; but, for
the reasons assigned in my introduction, they have not been included
in the present work.].
General introductions to the book on Painting (9-13).
9.
INTRODUCTION.
Seeing that I can find no subject specially useful or pleasing--since
the men who have come before me have taken for their own every useful
or necessary theme--I must do like one who, being poor, comes last to
the fair, and can find no other way of providing himself than by
taking all the things already seen by other buyers, and not taken but
refused by reason of their lesser value. I, then, will load my humble
pack with this despised and rejected merchandise, the refuse of so
many buyers; and will go about to distribute it, not indeed in great
cities, but in the poorer towns, taking such a price as the wares I
offer may be worth. [Footnote: It need hardly be pointed out that
there is in this 'Proemio' a covert irony. In the second and third
prefaces, Leonardo characterises his rivals and opponents more
closely. His protest is directed against Neo-latinism as professed by
most of the humanists of his time; its futility is now no longer
questioned.]
10.
INTRODUCTION.
I know that many will call this useless work [Footnote: 3. questa
essere opera inutile. By opera we must here understand libro di
pittura and particularly the treatise on Perspective.]; and they will
be those of whom Demetrius [Footnote: 4. Demetrio. "With regard to the
passage attributed to Demetrius", Dr. H. MULLER STRUBING writes, "I
know not what to make of it. It is certainly not Demetrius Phalereus
that is meant and it can hardly be Demetrius Poliorcetes. Who then can
it be--for the name is a very common one? It may be a clerical error
for Demades and the maxim is quite in the spirit of his writings I
have not however been able to find any corresponding passage either in
the 'Fragments' (C. MULLER, _Orat. Att._, II. 441) nor in the
Supplements collected by DIETZ (_Rhein. Mus._, vol. 29, p. 108)."
The same passage occurs as a simple Memorandum in the MS. Tr. 57,
apparently as a note for this '_Proemio_' thus affording some data as
to the time where these introductions were written.] declared that he
took no more account of the wind that came out their mouth in words,
than of that they expelled from their lower parts: men who desire
nothing but material riches and are absolutely devoid of that of
wisdom, which is the food and the only true riches of the mind. For so
much more worthy as the soul is than the body, so much more noble are
the possessions of the soul than those of the body. And often, when I
see one of these men take this work in his hand, I wonder that he does
not put it to his nose, like a monkey, or ask me if it is something
good to eat.
[Footnote: In the original, the Proemio di prospettiva cioe
dell'uffitio dell'occhio (see No. 21) stands between this and the
preceding one, No. 9.]
INTRODUCTION.
I am fully concious that, not being a literary man, certain
presumptuous persons will think that they may reasonably blame me;
alleging that I am not a man of letters. Foolish folks! do they not
know that I might retort as Marius did to the Roman Patricians
[Footnote 21: _Come Mario disse ai patriti Romani_. "I am unable to
find the words here attributed by Leonardo to Marius, either in
Plutarch's Life of Marius or in the Apophthegmata (_Moralia_, p.202).
Nor do they occur in the writings of Valerius Maximus (who frequently
mentions Marius) nor in Velleius Paterculus (II, 11 to 43), Dio
Cassius, Aulus Gellius, or Macrobius. Professor E. MENDELSON of
Dorpat, the editor of Herodian, assures me that no such passage is the
found in that author" (communication from Dr. MULLER STRUBING).
Leonardo evidently meant to allude to some well known incident in
Roman history and the mention of Marius is the result probably of some
confusion. We may perhaps read, for Marius, Menenius Agrippa, though
in that case it is true we must alter Patriti to Plebei. The change is
a serious one. but it would render the passage perfectly clear.] by
saying: That they, who deck themselves out in the labours of others
will not allow me my own. They will say that I, having no literary
skill, cannot properly express that which I desire to treat of
[Footnote 26: _le mie cose .... che d'altra parola_. This can hardly
be reconciled with Mons. RAVAISSON'S estimate of L. da Vinci's
learning. "_Leonard de Vinci etait un admirateur et un disciple des
anciens, aussi bien dans l'art que dans la science et il tenait a
passer pour tel meme aux yeux de la posterite._" _Gaz. des Beaux arts.
Oct. 1877.]; but they do not know that my subjects are to be dealt
with by experience rather than by words [Footnote 28: See Footnote
26]; and [experience] has been the mistress of those who wrote well.
And so, as mistress, I will cite her in all cases.
11.
Though I may not, like them, be able to quote other authors, I shall
rely on that which is much greater and more worthy:--on experience,
the mistress of their Masters. They go about puffed up and pompous,
dressed and decorated with [the fruits], not of their own labours, but
of those of others. And they will not allow me my own. They will scorn
me as an inventor; but how much more might they--who are not inventors
but vaunters and declaimers of the works of others--be blamed.
INTRODUCTION.
And those men who are inventors and interpreters between Nature and
Man, as compared with boasters and declaimers of the works of others,
must be regarded and not otherwise esteemed than as the object in
front of a mirror, when compared with its image seen in the mirror.
For the first is something in itself, and the other
nothingness.--Folks little indebted to Nature, since it is only by
chance that they wear the human form and without it I might class them
with the herds of beasts.
12.
Many will think they may reasonably blame me by alleging that my
proofs are opposed to the authority of certain men held in the highest
reverence by their inexperienced judgments; not considering that my
works are the issue of pure and simple experience, who is the one true
mistress. These rules are sufficient to enable you to know the true
from the false--and this aids men to look only for things that are
possible and with due moderation--and not to wrap yourself in
ignorance, a thing which can have no good result, so that in despair
you would give yourself up to melancholy.
13.
Among all the studies of natural causes and reasons Light chiefly
delights the beholder; and among the great features of Mathematics the
certainty of its demonstrations is what preeminently (tends to)
elevate the mind of the investigator. Perspective, therefore, must be
preferred to all the discourses and systems of human learning. In this
branch [of science] the beam of light is explained on those methods of
demonstration which form the glory not so much of Mathematics as of
Physics and are graced with the flowers of both [Footnote: 5. Such of
Leonardo's notes on Optics or on Perspective as bear exclusively on
Mathematics or Physics could not be included in the arrangement of the
_libro di pittura_ which is here presented to the reader. They are
however but few.]. But its axioms being laid down at great length, I
shall abridge them to a conclusive brevity, arranging them on the
method both of their natural order and of mathematical demonstration;
sometimes by deduction of the effects from the causes, and sometimes
arguing the causes from the effects; adding also to my own conclusions
some which, though not included in them, may nevertheless be inferred
from them. Thus, if the Lord--who is the light of all
things--vouchsafe to enlighten me, I will treat of Light; wherefore I
will divide the present work into 3 Parts [Footnote: 10. In the middle
ages--for instance, by ROGER BACON, by VITELLONE, with whose works
Leonardo was certainly familiar, and by all the writers of the
Renaissance Perspective and Optics were not regarded as distinct
sciences. Perspective, indeed, is in its widest application the
science of seeing. Although to Leonardo the two sciences were clearly
separate, it is not so as to their names; thus we find axioms in
Optics under the heading Perspective. According to this arrangement of
the materials for the theoretical portion of the _libro di pittura_
propositions in Perspective and in Optics stand side by side or occur
alternately. Although this particular chapter deals only with Optics,
it is not improbable that the words _partiro la presente opera in 3
parti_ may refer to the same division into three sections which is
spoken of in chapters 14 to 17.].
The plan of the book on Painting (14--17).
14.
ON THE THREE BRANCHES OF PERSPECTIVE.
There are three branches of perspective; the first deals with the
reasons of the (apparent) diminution of objects as they recede from
the eye, and is known as Diminishing Perspective.--The second contains
the way in which colours vary as they recede from the eye. The third
and last is concerned with the explanation of how the objects [in a
picture] ought to be less finished in proportion as they are remote
(and the names are as follows):
Linear Perspective. The Perspective of Colour. The Perspective of
Disappearance.
[Footnote: 13. From the character of the handwriting I infer that this
passage was written before the year 1490.].
15.
ON PAINTING AND PERSPECTIVE.
The divisions of Perspective are 3, as used in drawing; of these, the
first includes the diminution in size of opaque objects; the second
treats of the diminution and loss of outline in such opaque objects;
the third, of the diminution and loss of colour at long distances.
[Footnote: The division is here the same as in the previous chapter
No. 14, and this is worthy of note when we connect it with the fact
that a space of about 20 years must have intervened between the
writing of the two passages.]
16.
THE DISCOURSE ON PAINTING.
Perspective, as bearing on drawing, is divided into three principal
sections; of which the first treats of the diminution in the size of
bodies at different distances. The second part is that which treats of
the diminution in colour in these objects. The third [deals with] the
diminished distinctness of the forms and outlines displayed by the
objects at various distances.
17.
ON THE SECTIONS OF [THE BOOK ON] PAINTING.
The first thing in painting is that the objects it represents should
appear in relief, and that the grounds surrounding them at different
distances shall appear within the vertical plane of the foreground of
the picture by means of the 3 branches of Perspective, which are: the
diminution in the distinctness of the forms of the objects, the
diminution in their magnitude; and the diminution in their colour. And
of these 3 classes of Perspective the first results from [the
structure of] the eye, while the other two are caused by the
atmosphere which intervenes between the eye and the objects seen by
it. The second essential in painting is appropriate action and a due
variety in the figures, so that the men may not all look like
brothers, &c.
[Footnote: This and the two foregoing chapters must have been written
in 1513 to 1516. They undoubtedly indicate the scheme which Leonardo
wished to carry out in arranging his researches on Perspective as
applied to Painting. This is important because it is an evidence
against the supposition of H. LUDWIG and others, that Leonardo had
collected his principles of Perspective in one book so early as before
1500; a Book which, according to the hypothesis, must have been lost
at a very early period, or destroyed possibly, by the French (!) in
1500 (see H. LUDWIG. L. da Vinci: _Das Buch van der Malerei_. Vienna
1882 III, 7 and 8).]
The use of the book on Painting.
18.
These rules are of use only in correcting the figures; since every man
makes some mistakes in his first compositions and he who knows them
not, cannot amend them. But you, knowing your errors, will correct
your works and where you find mistakes amend them, and remember never
to fall into them again. But if you try to apply these rules in
composition you will never make an end, and will produce confusion in
your works.
These rules will enable you to have a free and sound judgment; since
good judgment is born of clear understanding, and a clear
understanding comes of reasons derived from sound rules, and sound
rules are the issue of sound experience--the common mother of all the
sciences and arts. Hence, bearing in mind the precepts of my rules,
you will be able, merely by your amended judgment, to criticise and
recognise every thing that is out of proportion in a work, whether in
the perspective or in the figures or any thing else.
Necessity of theoretical knowledge (19. 20).
19.
OF THE MISTAKES MADE BY THOSE WHO PRACTISE WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE.
Those who are in love with practice without knowledge are like the
sailor who gets into a ship without rudder or compass and who never
can be certain whether he is going. Practice must always be founded on
sound theory, and to this Perspective is the guide and the gateway;
and without this nothing can be done well in the matter of drawing.
20.
The painter who draws merely by practice and by eye, without any
reason, is like a mirror which copies every thing placed in front of
it without being conscious of their existence.
The function of the eye (21-23).
21.
INTRODUCTION TO PERSPECTIVE:--THAT IS OF THE FUNCTION OF THE EYE.
Behold here O reader! a thing concerning which we cannot trust our
forefathers, the ancients, who tried to define what the Soul and Life
are--which are beyond proof, whereas those things, which can at any
time be clearly known and proved by experience, remained for many ages
unknown or falsely understood. The eye, whose function we so certainly
know by experience, has, down to my own time, been defined by an
infinite number of authors as one thing; but I find, by experience,
that it is quite another. [Footnote 13: Compare the note to No. 70.]
[Footnote: In section 13 we already find it indicated that the study
of Perspective and of Optics is to be based on that of the functions
of the eye. Leonardo also refers to the science of the eye, in his
astronomical researches, for instance in MS. F 25b '_Ordine del
provare la terra essere una stella: Imprima difinisce l'occhio'_, &c.
Compare also MS. E 15b and F 60b. The principles of astronomical
perspective.]
22.
Here [in the eye] forms, here colours, here the character of every
part of the universe are concentrated to a point; and that point is so
marvellous a thing ... Oh! marvellous, O stupendous Necessity--by thy
laws thou dost compel every effect to be the direct result of its
cause, by the shortest path. These [indeed] are miracles;...
In so small a space it can be reproduced and rearranged in its whole
expanse. Describe in your anatomy what proportion there is between the
diameters of all the images in the eye and the distance from them of
the crystalline lens.